4 Types of dataset
4.1 Cross-sectional data
Here is an example of a cross-sectional dataset. Notice that you have one observation for each unit only. You might have several variables for each unit. Usually, when you create a plot, you will have two variables, one in each axis.
library(ggplot2)
library(ggthemes)
mtcars <- mtcars
ggplot(mtcars, aes(hp, mpg, color = am)) +
geom_point() + geom_smooth(formula = y ~ x, method = "loess") + theme_solarized()Warning: The following aesthetics were dropped during statistical transformation: colour
ℹ This can happen when ggplot fails to infer the correct grouping structure in
the data.
ℹ Did you forget to specify a `group` aesthetic or to convert a numerical
variable into a factor?
knitr::kable(head(mtcars,30))| mpg | cyl | disp | hp | drat | wt | qsec | vs | am | gear | carb | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mazda RX4 | 21.0 | 6 | 160.0 | 110 | 3.90 | 2.620 | 16.46 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 |
| Mazda RX4 Wag | 21.0 | 6 | 160.0 | 110 | 3.90 | 2.875 | 17.02 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 |
| Datsun 710 | 22.8 | 4 | 108.0 | 93 | 3.85 | 2.320 | 18.61 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 |
| Hornet 4 Drive | 21.4 | 6 | 258.0 | 110 | 3.08 | 3.215 | 19.44 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
| Hornet Sportabout | 18.7 | 8 | 360.0 | 175 | 3.15 | 3.440 | 17.02 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
| Valiant | 18.1 | 6 | 225.0 | 105 | 2.76 | 3.460 | 20.22 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
| Duster 360 | 14.3 | 8 | 360.0 | 245 | 3.21 | 3.570 | 15.84 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4 |
| Merc 240D | 24.4 | 4 | 146.7 | 62 | 3.69 | 3.190 | 20.00 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 |
| Merc 230 | 22.8 | 4 | 140.8 | 95 | 3.92 | 3.150 | 22.90 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 |
| Merc 280 | 19.2 | 6 | 167.6 | 123 | 3.92 | 3.440 | 18.30 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 4 |
| Merc 280C | 17.8 | 6 | 167.6 | 123 | 3.92 | 3.440 | 18.90 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 4 |
| Merc 450SE | 16.4 | 8 | 275.8 | 180 | 3.07 | 4.070 | 17.40 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
| Merc 450SL | 17.3 | 8 | 275.8 | 180 | 3.07 | 3.730 | 17.60 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
| Merc 450SLC | 15.2 | 8 | 275.8 | 180 | 3.07 | 3.780 | 18.00 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
| Cadillac Fleetwood | 10.4 | 8 | 472.0 | 205 | 2.93 | 5.250 | 17.98 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4 |
| Lincoln Continental | 10.4 | 8 | 460.0 | 215 | 3.00 | 5.424 | 17.82 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4 |
| Chrysler Imperial | 14.7 | 8 | 440.0 | 230 | 3.23 | 5.345 | 17.42 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4 |
| Fiat 128 | 32.4 | 4 | 78.7 | 66 | 4.08 | 2.200 | 19.47 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 |
| Honda Civic | 30.4 | 4 | 75.7 | 52 | 4.93 | 1.615 | 18.52 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 |
| Toyota Corolla | 33.9 | 4 | 71.1 | 65 | 4.22 | 1.835 | 19.90 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 |
| Toyota Corona | 21.5 | 4 | 120.1 | 97 | 3.70 | 2.465 | 20.01 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
| Dodge Challenger | 15.5 | 8 | 318.0 | 150 | 2.76 | 3.520 | 16.87 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
| AMC Javelin | 15.2 | 8 | 304.0 | 150 | 3.15 | 3.435 | 17.30 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
| Camaro Z28 | 13.3 | 8 | 350.0 | 245 | 3.73 | 3.840 | 15.41 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 4 |
| Pontiac Firebird | 19.2 | 8 | 400.0 | 175 | 3.08 | 3.845 | 17.05 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 |
| Fiat X1-9 | 27.3 | 4 | 79.0 | 66 | 4.08 | 1.935 | 18.90 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 |
| Porsche 914-2 | 26.0 | 4 | 120.3 | 91 | 4.43 | 2.140 | 16.70 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 2 |
| Lotus Europa | 30.4 | 4 | 95.1 | 113 | 3.77 | 1.513 | 16.90 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 2 |
| Ford Pantera L | 15.8 | 8 | 351.0 | 264 | 4.22 | 3.170 | 14.50 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 4 |
| Ferrari Dino | 19.7 | 6 | 145.0 | 175 | 3.62 | 2.770 | 15.50 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 6 |
4.2 Time-series data
Here is an example of a Time-series dataset. Notice that you have one observation per period. You need to pay attention to the frequency when you have time-series. Usually, when you create a plot, you will have the period variable as the x-axis.
library(GetQuandlData)
library(GetTDData)
api_key <- "kfqxH5NsN8Nhe_U1NADB"
first_date <- '2020-01-01'
last_date <- '2022-01-01'
inf <- get_Quandl_series(id_in = c('Inflation' = 'BCB/433'),
api_key = api_key,
first_date = first_date,
last_date = last_date)library(ggplot2)
library(ggthemes)
ggplot(inf, aes( x = ref_date, y= value)) + geom_line() + labs(title = "Selic")+
theme(axis.text.x = element_text(color = "grey20", size = 15, angle = 0, hjust = .5, vjust = .5, face = "plain"),
axis.text.y = element_text(color = "grey20", size = 15, angle = 0, hjust = 1, vjust = 0, face = "plain"),
axis.title.x = element_text(color = "grey20", size = 15, angle = 0, hjust = .5, vjust = 0, face = "plain"),
axis.title.y = element_text(color = "grey20", size = 15, angle = 90, hjust = .5, vjust = .5, face = "plain")) + theme_solarized()
knitr::kable(inf)| series_name | ref_date | value | id_quandl |
|---|---|---|---|
| Inflation | 2020-01-31 | 0.21 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-02-29 | 0.25 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-03-31 | 0.07 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-04-30 | -0.31 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-05-31 | -0.38 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-06-30 | 0.26 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-07-31 | 0.36 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-08-31 | 0.24 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-09-30 | 0.64 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-10-31 | 0.86 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-11-30 | 0.89 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2020-12-31 | 1.35 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-01-31 | 0.25 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-02-28 | 0.86 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-03-31 | 0.93 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-04-30 | 0.31 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-05-31 | 0.83 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-06-30 | 0.53 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-07-31 | 0.96 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-08-31 | 0.87 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-09-30 | 1.16 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-10-31 | 1.25 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-11-30 | 0.95 | BCB/433 |
| Inflation | 2021-12-31 | 0.73 | BCB/433 |
4.3 Pooled cross sections data
A pooled cross section dataset combines more than one cross-sectional dataset collected overtime. For instance, when you have data from two non consecutive years. It is hard to create a graph with this dataset, but you can manage to include more than one year in the same plot.
More about the dataset here
library(ggplot2)
library(ggthemes)
library(wooldridge)Warning: package 'wooldridge' was built under R version 4.2.3data('infmrt')
ggplot(infmrt, aes(pcinc, infmort, color=factor(year), group=factor(year))) + geom_point() + theme_solarized() 
knitr::kable(infmrt)| year | infmort | afdcprt | popul | pcinc | physic | afdcper | d90 | lpcinc | lphysic | DC | lpopul |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1987 | 8.3 | 52 | 1186 | 13996 | 173 | 4.384486 | 0 | 9.546527 | 5.153292 | 0 | 7.078341 |
| 1990 | 6.2 | 62 | 1228 | 17125 | 178 | 5.048860 | 1 | 9.748295 | 5.181784 | 0 | 7.113142 |
| 1987 | 7.8 | 11 | 1056 | 18083 | 186 | 1.041667 | 0 | 9.802728 | 5.225747 | 0 | 6.962244 |
| 1990 | 7.1 | 21 | 1109 | 21051 | 200 | 1.893598 | 1 | 9.954703 | 5.298317 | 0 | 7.011214 |
| 1987 | 8.5 | 20 | 547 | 14267 | 244 | 3.656307 | 0 | 9.565704 | 5.497168 | 0 | 6.304449 |
| 1990 | 6.4 | 25 | 563 | 17630 | 253 | 4.440497 | 1 | 9.777357 | 5.533390 | 0 | 6.333280 |
| 1987 | 7.2 | 234 | 5856 | 19131 | 322 | 3.995902 | 0 | 9.859065 | 5.774551 | 0 | 8.675222 |
| 1990 | 7.0 | 282 | 6016 | 22558 | 337 | 4.687500 | 1 | 10.023845 | 5.820083 | 0 | 8.702178 |
| 1987 | 8.4 | 42 | 986 | 15683 | 244 | 4.259635 | 0 | 9.660333 | 5.497168 | 0 | 6.893656 |
| 1990 | 8.1 | 52 | 1003 | 18771 | 254 | 5.184447 | 1 | 9.840069 | 5.537334 | 0 | 6.910751 |
| 1987 | 8.8 | 107 | 3212 | 21258 | 293 | 3.331258 | 0 | 9.964489 | 5.680172 | 0 | 8.074649 |
| 1990 | 7.9 | 135 | 3287 | 25528 | 305 | 4.107089 | 1 | 10.147531 | 5.720312 | 0 | 8.097731 |
| 1987 | 10.7 | 1019 | 17835 | 17943 | 307 | 5.713485 | 0 | 9.794955 | 5.726848 | 0 | 9.788918 |
| 1990 | 9.6 | 1031 | 17990 | 22068 | 315 | 5.730962 | 1 | 10.001883 | 5.752573 | 0 | 9.797571 |
| 1987 | 9.4 | 320 | 7674 | 20277 | 234 | 4.169924 | 0 | 9.917242 | 5.455321 | 0 | 8.945593 |
| 1990 | 9.0 | 323 | 7730 | 24977 | 246 | 4.178525 | 1 | 10.125711 | 5.505331 | 0 | 8.952864 |
| 1987 | 10.4 | 539 | 11942 | 15198 | 227 | 4.513482 | 0 | 9.628919 | 5.424950 | 0 | 9.387816 |
| 1990 | 9.6 | 549 | 11882 | 18725 | 235 | 4.620434 | 1 | 9.837615 | 5.459586 | 0 | 9.382780 |
| 1987 | 9.3 | 648 | 10816 | 14575 | 191 | 5.991124 | 0 | 9.587063 | 5.252274 | 0 | 9.288782 |
| 1990 | 9.8 | 657 | 10847 | 17422 | 196 | 6.056974 | 1 | 9.765489 | 5.278115 | 0 | 9.291644 |
| 1987 | 10.1 | 150 | 5530 | 13987 | 151 | 2.712477 | 0 | 9.545883 | 5.017280 | 0 | 8.617943 |
| 1990 | 9.6 | 164 | 5544 | 16814 | 157 | 2.958153 | 1 | 9.729967 | 5.056246 | 0 | 8.620472 |
| 1987 | 11.6 | 681 | 11584 | 16394 | 210 | 5.878799 | 0 | 9.704671 | 5.347107 | 0 | 9.357380 |
| 1990 | 10.7 | 656 | 11431 | 20327 | 212 | 5.738780 | 1 | 9.919705 | 5.356586 | 0 | 9.344084 |
| 1987 | 10.7 | 642 | 9205 | 15558 | 180 | 6.974471 | 0 | 9.652330 | 5.192957 | 0 | 9.127502 |
| 1990 | 10.7 | 684 | 9295 | 18297 | 185 | 7.358795 | 1 | 9.814492 | 5.220356 | 0 | 9.137232 |
| 1987 | 8.6 | 271 | 4807 | 14674 | 181 | 5.637612 | 0 | 9.593833 | 5.198497 | 0 | 8.477828 |
| 1990 | 8.2 | 236 | 4892 | 17455 | 189 | 4.824203 | 1 | 9.767382 | 5.241747 | 0 | 8.495357 |
| 1987 | 8.7 | 161 | 4244 | 15789 | 212 | 3.793591 | 0 | 9.667068 | 5.356586 | 0 | 8.353262 |
| 1990 | 7.3 | 177 | 4375 | 18690 | 220 | 4.045714 | 1 | 9.835744 | 5.393628 | 0 | 8.383662 |
| 1987 | 9.1 | 104 | 2823 | 14028 | 145 | 3.684024 | 0 | 9.548811 | 4.976734 | 0 | 7.945555 |
| 1990 | 8.1 | 96 | 2777 | 16848 | 151 | 3.456968 | 1 | 9.731987 | 5.017280 | 0 | 7.929126 |
| 1987 | 10.2 | 200 | 5107 | 14630 | 190 | 3.916193 | 0 | 9.590830 | 5.247024 | 0 | 8.538367 |
| 1990 | 9.4 | 218 | 5117 | 17347 | 196 | 4.260309 | 1 | 9.761175 | 5.278115 | 0 | 8.540323 |
| 1987 | 8.7 | 15 | 671 | 12825 | 167 | 2.235469 | 0 | 9.459151 | 5.117994 | 0 | 6.508769 |
| 1990 | 8.0 | 16 | 639 | 15158 | 170 | 2.503912 | 1 | 9.626284 | 5.135798 | 0 | 6.459905 |
| 1987 | 9.9 | 18 | 709 | 12414 | 138 | 2.538787 | 0 | 9.426580 | 4.927254 | 0 | 6.563856 |
| 1990 | 10.1 | 19 | 696 | 15566 | 140 | 2.729885 | 1 | 9.652844 | 4.941642 | 0 | 6.545350 |
| 1987 | 8.6 | 43 | 1594 | 14100 | 168 | 2.697616 | 0 | 9.553930 | 5.123964 | 0 | 7.374002 |
| 1990 | 8.3 | 44 | 1578 | 17276 | 172 | 2.788340 | 1 | 9.757073 | 5.147494 | 0 | 7.363913 |
| 1987 | 9.5 | 67 | 2475 | 15089 | 169 | 2.707071 | 0 | 9.621721 | 5.129899 | 0 | 7.813996 |
| 1990 | 8.4 | 77 | 2478 | 17768 | 175 | 3.107345 | 1 | 9.785154 | 5.164786 | 0 | 7.815207 |
| 1987 | 11.7 | 20 | 648 | 16305 | 191 | 3.086420 | 0 | 9.699227 | 5.252274 | 0 | 6.473891 |
| 1990 | 10.1 | 22 | 666 | 20709 | 199 | 3.303303 | 1 | 9.938324 | 5.293305 | 0 | 6.501290 |
| 1987 | 11.5 | 176 | 4536 | 18217 | 325 | 3.880070 | 0 | 9.810110 | 5.783825 | 0 | 8.419801 |
| 1990 | 9.5 | 198 | 4781 | 21915 | 334 | 4.141393 | 1 | 9.994927 | 5.811141 | 0 | 8.472405 |
| 1987 | 19.3 | 50 | 621 | 19543 | 591 | 8.051530 | 0 | 9.880372 | 6.381816 | 1 | 6.431331 |
| 1990 | 20.7 | 54 | 607 | 23885 | 615 | 8.896211 | 1 | 10.081006 | 6.421622 | 1 | 6.408529 |
| 1987 | 10.2 | 145 | 5914 | 16539 | 204 | 2.451809 | 0 | 9.713476 | 5.318120 | 0 | 8.685078 |
| 1990 | 10.2 | 158 | 6187 | 19679 | 213 | 2.553742 | 1 | 9.887307 | 5.361292 | 0 | 8.730206 |
| 1987 | 9.8 | 111 | 1898 | 11013 | 164 | 5.848261 | 0 | 9.306831 | 5.099866 | 0 | 7.548556 |
| 1990 | 9.9 | 109 | 1793 | 13722 | 166 | 6.079197 | 1 | 9.526755 | 5.111988 | 0 | 7.491645 |
| 1987 | 11.9 | 171 | 6409 | 13353 | 179 | 2.668123 | 0 | 9.499496 | 5.187386 | 0 | 8.765458 |
| 1990 | 10.6 | 255 | 6629 | 16383 | 190 | 3.846734 | 1 | 9.704000 | 5.247024 | 0 | 8.799210 |
| 1987 | 12.7 | 122 | 3426 | 12078 | 156 | 3.561004 | 0 | 9.399141 | 5.049856 | 0 | 8.139149 |
| 1990 | 11.7 | 118 | 3487 | 15043 | 161 | 3.383998 | 1 | 9.618668 | 5.081404 | 0 | 8.156797 |
| 1987 | 12.7 | 244 | 6227 | 14387 | 167 | 3.918420 | 0 | 9.574081 | 5.117994 | 0 | 8.736650 |
| 1990 | 12.4 | 320 | 6478 | 17041 | 175 | 4.939796 | 1 | 9.743378 | 5.164786 | 0 | 8.776167 |
| 1987 | 10.6 | 307 | 12022 | 15594 | 203 | 2.553652 | 0 | 9.654641 | 5.313206 | 0 | 9.394494 |
| 1990 | 9.6 | 420 | 12938 | 18606 | 208 | 3.246251 | 1 | 9.831240 | 5.337538 | 0 | 9.467924 |
| 1987 | 9.7 | 155 | 3723 | 11996 | 161 | 4.163309 | 0 | 9.392328 | 5.081404 | 0 | 8.222285 |
| 1990 | 8.5 | 204 | 3685 | 14984 | 168 | 5.535956 | 1 | 9.614738 | 5.123964 | 0 | 8.212026 |
| 1987 | 11.7 | 181 | 4855 | 12977 | 187 | 3.728115 | 0 | 9.470934 | 5.231109 | 0 | 8.487764 |
| 1990 | 10.3 | 230 | 4877 | 15869 | 196 | 4.716014 | 1 | 9.672123 | 5.278115 | 0 | 8.492286 |
| 1987 | 12.2 | 132 | 4084 | 12039 | 151 | 3.232125 | 0 | 9.395906 | 5.017280 | 0 | 8.314832 |
| 1990 | 10.8 | 132 | 4041 | 14899 | 158 | 3.266518 | 1 | 9.609050 | 5.062595 | 0 | 8.304248 |
| 1987 | 13.7 | 176 | 2624 | 10301 | 125 | 6.707317 | 0 | 9.239996 | 4.828314 | 0 | 7.872455 |
| 1990 | 12.1 | 176 | 2573 | 12700 | 133 | 6.840264 | 1 | 9.449357 | 4.890349 | 0 | 7.852828 |
| 1987 | 10.3 | 67 | 2388 | 11421 | 144 | 2.805695 | 0 | 9.343209 | 4.969813 | 0 | 7.778212 |
| 1990 | 9.2 | 73 | 2351 | 14037 | 150 | 3.105062 | 1 | 9.549452 | 5.010635 | 0 | 7.762596 |
| 1987 | 11.8 | 271 | 4448 | 11506 | 184 | 6.092626 | 0 | 9.350624 | 5.214936 | 0 | 8.400209 |
| 1990 | 11.1 | 279 | 4220 | 14300 | 188 | 6.611374 | 1 | 9.568015 | 5.236442 | 0 | 8.347590 |
| 1987 | 9.6 | 101 | 3259 | 12607 | 145 | 3.099110 | 0 | 9.442007 | 4.976734 | 0 | 8.089175 |
| 1990 | 9.2 | 129 | 3146 | 15154 | 147 | 4.100445 | 1 | 9.626019 | 4.990433 | 0 | 8.053887 |
| 1987 | 9.1 | 500 | 16781 | 13840 | 169 | 2.979560 | 0 | 9.535318 | 5.129899 | 0 | 9.728003 |
| 1990 | 8.1 | 673 | 16987 | 16600 | 175 | 3.961853 | 1 | 9.717158 | 5.164786 | 0 | 9.740204 |
| 1987 | 10.0 | 29 | 909 | 12304 | 150 | 3.190319 | 0 | 9.417680 | 5.010635 | 0 | 6.812345 |
| 1990 | 9.0 | 29 | 799 | 14663 | 158 | 3.629537 | 1 | 9.593082 | 5.062595 | 0 | 6.683361 |
| 1987 | 10.4 | 18 | 1000 | 11797 | 120 | 1.800000 | 0 | 9.375601 | 4.787492 | 0 | 6.907755 |
| 1990 | 8.7 | 17 | 1007 | 15137 | 125 | 1.688183 | 1 | 9.624897 | 4.828314 | 0 | 6.914731 |
| 1987 | 9.2 | 13 | 490 | 12836 | 134 | 2.653061 | 0 | 9.460009 | 4.897840 | 0 | 6.194406 |
| 1990 | 8.6 | 16 | 454 | 16467 | 139 | 3.524229 | 1 | 9.709114 | 4.934474 | 0 | 6.118097 |
| 1987 | 9.8 | 94 | 3293 | 15680 | 202 | 2.854540 | 0 | 9.660141 | 5.308268 | 0 | 8.099554 |
| 1990 | 8.8 | 109 | 3294 | 18795 | 211 | 3.309047 | 1 | 9.841346 | 5.351858 | 0 | 8.099858 |
| 1987 | 8.1 | 60 | 1496 | 11889 | 173 | 4.010695 | 0 | 9.383368 | 5.153292 | 0 | 7.310550 |
| 1990 | 9.0 | 67 | 1515 | 14124 | 183 | 4.422442 | 1 | 9.555631 | 5.209486 | 0 | 7.323171 |
| 1987 | 9.5 | 91 | 3400 | 14322 | 191 | 2.676471 | 0 | 9.569552 | 5.252274 | 0 | 8.131531 |
| 1990 | 8.8 | 144 | 3665 | 16169 | 197 | 3.929059 | 1 | 9.690851 | 5.283204 | 0 | 8.206584 |
| 1987 | 8.8 | 44 | 1680 | 11530 | 177 | 2.619048 | 0 | 9.352708 | 5.176150 | 0 | 7.426549 |
| 1990 | 7.5 | 47 | 1723 | 14036 | 185 | 2.727800 | 1 | 9.549380 | 5.220356 | 0 | 7.451822 |
| 1987 | 9.6 | 17 | 1006 | 16359 | 158 | 1.689861 | 0 | 9.702534 | 5.062595 | 0 | 6.913737 |
| 1990 | 8.4 | 25 | 1202 | 19680 | 159 | 2.079867 | 1 | 9.887358 | 5.068904 | 0 | 7.091742 |
| 1987 | 9.7 | 208 | 4542 | 15634 | 206 | 4.579480 | 0 | 9.657204 | 5.327876 | 0 | 8.421123 |
| 1990 | 7.8 | 237 | 4867 | 18738 | 213 | 4.869529 | 1 | 9.838309 | 5.361292 | 0 | 8.490233 |
| 1987 | 10.4 | 81 | 2723 | 13906 | 196 | 2.974660 | 0 | 9.540075 | 5.278115 | 0 | 7.909490 |
| 1990 | 8.3 | 99 | 2842 | 17038 | 205 | 3.483462 | 1 | 9.743201 | 5.323010 | 0 | 7.952263 |
| 1987 | 9.0 | 1708 | 27653 | 17770 | 242 | 6.176545 | 0 | 9.785267 | 5.488938 | 0 | 10.227490 |
| 1990 | 7.9 | 2023 | 29760 | 20547 | 244 | 6.797715 | 1 | 9.930471 | 5.497168 | 0 | 10.300921 |
| 1987 | 10.4 | 19 | 524 | 18461 | 138 | 3.625954 | 0 | 9.823416 | 4.927254 | 0 | 6.261492 |
| 1990 | 10.5 | 24 | 550 | 20867 | 146 | 4.363637 | 1 | 9.945924 | 4.983607 | 0 | 6.309918 |
| 1987 | 8.9 | 41 | 1082 | 15569 | 225 | 3.789279 | 0 | 9.653037 | 5.416100 | 0 | 6.986567 |
| 1990 | 6.7 | 44 | 1108 | 20461 | 236 | 3.971119 | 1 | 9.926276 | 5.463832 | 0 | 7.010312 |
4.4 Panel dataset
When you have a Panel, you have both dimensions: a cross-sectional and a time-series. That is, you have several variables from several units through several years. This is the type of dataset that most finance and accounting research deals with.
library(wooldridge)
data('prison')
knitr::kable(head(prison,50))| state | year | govelec | black | metro | unem | criv | crip | lcriv | lcrip | gcriv | gcrip | y81 | y82 | y83 | y84 | y85 | y86 | y87 | y88 | y89 | y90 | y91 | y92 | y93 | ag0_14 | ag15_17 | ag18_24 | ag25_34 | incpc | polpc | gincpc | gpolpc | cag0_14 | cag15_17 | cag18_24 | cag25_34 | cunem | cblack | cmetro | pris | lpris | gpris | final1 | final2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 80 | 0 | 0.2560 | 0.6320000 | 0.08775 | 4.447868 | 44.47638 | 1.492425 | 3.794958 | 0.0987858 | 0.1747851 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2408834 | 0.0575244 | 0.1322547 | 0.1538264 | 7673.176 | 235.0026 | 0.0896345 | 0.0541870 | -0.0012273 | -0.0011926 | 0.0000768 | 0.0019899 | 0.01675 | -0.0599995 | 0.0002000 | 141.3347 | 4.951131 | -0.0206594 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 81 | 0 | 0.2557 | 0.6362000 | 0.10667 | 4.700944 | 44.24879 | 1.547763 | 3.789828 | 0.0553384 | -0.0051301 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2367951 | 0.0546058 | 0.1324317 | 0.1584588 | 8442.723 | 227.2263 | 0.0955742 | -0.0336498 | -0.0040883 | -0.0029186 | 0.0001770 | 0.0046324 | 0.01892 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 163.5336 | 5.097019 | 0.1458879 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 82 | 1 | 0.2554 | 0.6404000 | 0.14367 | 4.497580 | 42.05045 | 1.503539 | 3.738870 | -0.0442240 | -0.0509582 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2336306 | 0.0519745 | 0.1317197 | 0.1584713 | 8855.808 | 219.4395 | 0.0477686 | -0.0348701 | -0.0031645 | -0.0026312 | -0.0007120 | 0.0000126 | 0.03700 | -0.0299988 | 0.0042000 | 183.6948 | 5.213276 | 0.1162572 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 83 | 0 | 0.2551 | 0.6446000 | 0.13667 | 4.186833 | 37.08439 | 1.431945 | 3.613196 | -0.0715947 | -0.1256738 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2313167 | 0.0495679 | 0.1304016 | 0.1596340 | 9411.027 | 222.5979 | 0.0608087 | 0.0142903 | -0.0023139 | -0.0024066 | -0.0013181 | 0.0011626 | -0.00700 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 218.6242 | 5.387354 | 0.1740785 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 84 | 0 | 0.2548 | 0.6488000 | 0.11167 | 4.353239 | 35.04226 | 1.470920 | 3.556555 | 0.0389756 | -0.0566416 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2279858 | 0.0485830 | 0.1277834 | 0.1609312 | 10267.680 | 214.3978 | 0.0871189 | -0.0375338 | -0.0033309 | -0.0009849 | -0.0026182 | 0.0012972 | -0.02500 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 245.0686 | 5.501538 | 0.1141839 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 85 | 0 | 0.2545 | 0.6530001 | 0.08908 | 4.630758 | 35.26680 | 1.532721 | 3.562942 | 0.0618004 | 0.0063875 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2252706 | 0.0488296 | 0.1240876 | 0.1625975 | 10974.390 | 220.5386 | 0.0665633 | 0.0282399 | -0.0027152 | 0.0002466 | -0.0036958 | 0.0016664 | -0.02259 | -0.0299988 | 0.0042001 | 259.2611 | 5.557836 | 0.0562973 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 86 | 1 | 0.2542 | 0.6572000 | 0.09833 | 5.665331 | 37.87350 | 1.734365 | 3.634252 | 0.2016448 | 0.0713096 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2224449 | 0.0501002 | 0.1197395 | 0.1638276 | 11666.695 | 226.8036 | 0.0611739 | 0.0280116 | -0.0028257 | 0.0012706 | -0.0043481 | 0.0012301 | 0.00925 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 270.5512 | 5.600461 | 0.0426259 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 87 | 0 | 0.2539 | 0.6614000 | 0.07775 | 5.686924 | 39.58107 | 1.738170 | 3.678351 | 0.0038042 | 0.0440993 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2204234 | 0.0500623 | 0.1160648 | 0.1643836 | 12289.268 | 241.1706 | 0.0519881 | 0.0614201 | -0.0020215 | -0.0000379 | -0.0036747 | 0.0005559 | -0.02058 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 288.1763 | 5.663573 | 0.0631113 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 88 | 0 | 0.2536 | 0.6656000 | 0.07208 | 5.728628 | 41.05592 | 1.745476 | 3.714935 | 0.0073066 | 0.0365839 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2196819 | 0.0487078 | 0.1135686 | 0.1635189 | 13052.042 | 256.2624 | 0.0602183 | 0.0606973 | -0.0007415 | -0.0013545 | -0.0024962 | -0.0008647 | -0.00567 | -0.0299988 | 0.0042000 | 313.8730 | 5.748989 | 0.0854158 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 89 | 0 | 0.2533 | 0.6698000 | 0.07025 | 6.036973 | 41.25161 | 1.797903 | 3.719690 | 0.0524266 | 0.0047555 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2191067 | 0.0464020 | 0.1116625 | 0.1620347 | 13967.873 | 268.8834 | 0.0678153 | 0.0480757 | -0.0005752 | -0.0023058 | -0.0019061 | -0.0014841 | -0.00183 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042001 | 307.0825 | 5.727117 | -0.0218720 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 90 | 1 | 0.2530 | 0.6740000 | 0.06775 | 7.069136 | 41.96889 | 1.955738 | 3.736928 | 0.1578355 | 0.0172381 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2182716 | 0.0449383 | 0.1098765 | 0.1597531 | 14896.788 | 280.4938 | 0.0643857 | 0.0422741 | -0.0008351 | -0.0014637 | -0.0017860 | -0.0022817 | -0.00250 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 336.8486 | 5.819634 | 0.0925169 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 91 | 0 | 0.2527 | 0.6782000 | 0.07200 | 8.439609 | 45.20342 | 2.132936 | 3.811173 | 0.1771978 | 0.0742443 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0.2176039 | 0.0442543 | 0.1092910 | 0.1574572 | 15600.990 | 288.9731 | 0.0461888 | 0.0297819 | -0.0006677 | -0.0006840 | -0.0005856 | -0.0022959 | 0.00425 | -0.0299988 | 0.0042000 | 379.3827 | 5.938545 | 0.1189117 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 92 | 0 | 0.2524 | 0.6824000 | 0.07300 | 8.712421 | 43.94321 | 2.164750 | 3.782898 | 0.0318139 | -0.0282745 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.2153214 | 0.0439826 | 0.1087482 | 0.1546641 | 16494.385 | 290.0435 | 0.0556856 | 0.0036972 | -0.0022825 | -0.0002717 | -0.0005428 | -0.0027931 | 0.00100 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042000 | 400.9780 | 5.993906 | 0.0553613 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 93 | 0 | 0.2521 | 0.6866000 | 0.07500 | 7.804156 | 40.98352 | 2.054657 | 3.713170 | -0.1100934 | -0.0697281 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.2135180 | 0.0437067 | 0.1084309 | 0.1523764 | 17105.346 | 296.8474 | 0.0363710 | 0.0231873 | -0.0018034 | -0.0002759 | -0.0003173 | -0.0022877 | 0.00200 | -0.0300007 | 0.0042001 | 409.3282 | 6.014517 | 0.0206108 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 80 | 0 | 0.0340 | 0.4340000 | 0.09592 | 4.773632 | 57.03980 | 1.563108 | 4.043749 | -0.0358539 | -0.0089197 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2686567 | 0.0547264 | 0.1492537 | 0.2263682 | 13784.794 | 315.9204 | 0.1159335 | -0.1006689 | -0.0092589 | -0.0048270 | 0.0053331 | 0.0104873 | 0.00267 | 0.0400002 | 0.0016000 | 132.0099 | 4.882877 | 0.0871882 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 81 | 0 | 0.0347 | 0.4317000 | 0.09233 | 6.069378 | 58.93301 | 1.803256 | 4.076401 | 0.2401487 | 0.0326519 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2679426 | 0.0526316 | 0.1387560 | 0.2344498 | 15385.251 | 305.9809 | 0.1098432 | -0.0319677 | -0.0007141 | -0.0020948 | -0.0104978 | 0.0080816 | -0.00359 | 0.0699999 | -0.0023000 | 142.0398 | 4.956107 | 0.0732303 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 82 | 1 | 0.0354 | 0.4294000 | 0.09983 | 6.071111 | 54.39778 | 1.803542 | 3.996323 | 0.0002855 | -0.0800779 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2644444 | 0.0488889 | 0.1311111 | 0.2355556 | 17119.225 | 280.0000 | 0.1067928 | -0.0887330 | -0.0034981 | -0.0037427 | -0.0076449 | 0.0011058 | 0.00750 | 0.0699999 | -0.0023000 | 170.5742 | 5.139170 | 0.1830630 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 83 | 0 | 0.0361 | 0.4271000 | 0.10308 | 6.024590 | 53.05123 | 1.795849 | 3.971258 | -0.0076922 | -0.0250652 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2684426 | 0.0471311 | 0.1250000 | 0.2356557 | 17930.697 | 268.8524 | 0.0463121 | -0.0406269 | 0.0039982 | -0.0017577 | -0.0061111 | 0.0001002 | 0.00325 | 0.0699999 | -0.0023000 | 193.7778 | 5.266712 | 0.1275420 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 84 | 0 | 0.0368 | 0.4248000 | 0.10150 | 6.046692 | 53.43969 | 1.799511 | 3.978554 | 0.0036620 | 0.0072956 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2704280 | 0.0466926 | 0.1206226 | 0.2315175 | 17625.547 | 286.1868 | -0.0171648 | 0.0624819 | 0.0019854 | -0.0004385 | -0.0043774 | -0.0041382 | -0.00158 | 0.0700002 | -0.0023000 | 219.6721 | 5.392136 | 0.1254239 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 85 | 0 | 0.0375 | 0.4225000 | 0.09608 | 5.697369 | 51.85714 | 1.740004 | 3.948493 | -0.0595070 | -0.0300610 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2763158 | 0.0469925 | 0.1165414 | 0.2255639 | 18430.637 | 294.5489 | 0.0446649 | 0.0288003 | 0.0058878 | 0.0002999 | -0.0040812 | -0.0059536 | -0.00542 | 0.0699999 | -0.0023000 | 251.5564 | 5.527667 | 0.1355314 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 86 | 1 | 0.0382 | 0.4202000 | 0.10908 | 5.599265 | 55.71140 | 1.722635 | 4.020185 | -0.0173692 | 0.0716918 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2794118 | 0.0477941 | 0.1139706 | 0.2169118 | 17821.215 | 277.2059 | -0.0336247 | -0.0606844 | 0.0030960 | 0.0008016 | -0.0025708 | -0.0086521 | 0.01300 | 0.0699999 | -0.0023000 | 287.5940 | 5.661550 | 0.1338820 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 87 | 0 | 0.0389 | 0.4179000 | 0.10800 | 4.435993 | 47.94249 | 1.489751 | 3.870002 | -0.2328838 | -0.1501825 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2820037 | 0.0482375 | 0.1113173 | 0.2096475 | 17252.170 | 318.7384 | -0.0324517 | 0.1396103 | 0.0025919 | 0.0004434 | -0.0026533 | -0.0072643 | -0.00108 | 0.0700002 | -0.0023000 | 306.2500 | 5.724402 | 0.0628524 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 88 | 0 | 0.0396 | 0.4156000 | 0.09225 | 4.948340 | 41.63469 | 1.599052 | 3.728934 | 0.1093006 | -0.1410685 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2785978 | 0.0442804 | 0.1070111 | 0.2084871 | 17932.758 | 355.7196 | 0.0386912 | 0.1097720 | -0.0034059 | -0.0039570 | -0.0043062 | -0.0011604 | -0.01575 | 0.0699999 | -0.0023000 | 327.8293 | 5.792493 | 0.0680909 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 89 | 0 | 0.0403 | 0.4133000 | 0.06742 | 4.795247 | 41.25594 | 1.567625 | 3.719795 | -0.0314269 | -0.0091383 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2760512 | 0.0420475 | 0.1060329 | 0.2065813 | 19636.496 | 353.5649 | 0.0907608 | -0.0060756 | -0.0025466 | -0.0022329 | -0.0009782 | -0.0019057 | -0.02483 | 0.0700002 | -0.0023000 | 343.5424 | 5.839311 | 0.0468178 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 90 | 1 | 0.0410 | 0.4110000 | 0.07025 | 5.207581 | 45.95126 | 1.650116 | 3.827581 | 0.0824903 | 0.1077862 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2725632 | 0.0415162 | 0.1010830 | 0.2039711 | 20848.021 | 350.1805 | 0.0598692 | -0.0096183 | -0.0034880 | -0.0005313 | -0.0049499 | -0.0026102 | 0.00283 | 0.0699997 | -0.0023000 | 348.8117 | 5.854532 | 0.0152216 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 91 | 0 | 0.0417 | 0.4087000 | 0.08500 | 6.149385 | 50.96661 | 1.816352 | 3.931171 | 0.1662366 | 0.1035893 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0.2759227 | 0.0404218 | 0.0984183 | 0.1968365 | 21581.395 | 273.6380 | 0.0345725 | -0.2466428 | 0.0033595 | -0.0010945 | -0.0026648 | -0.0071346 | 0.01475 | 0.0700002 | -0.0023000 | 334.1155 | 5.811487 | -0.0430455 | 1 | 0 |
| 2 | 92 | 0 | 0.0424 | 0.4064000 | 0.09100 | 6.593537 | 49.00680 | 1.886090 | 3.891959 | 0.0697378 | -0.0392115 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.2738095 | 0.0425170 | 0.0969388 | 0.1887755 | 22235.414 | 233.8435 | 0.0298547 | -0.1571537 | -0.0021132 | 0.0020952 | -0.0014795 | -0.0080610 | 0.00600 | 0.0699997 | -0.0023000 | 323.3743 | 5.778810 | -0.0326762 | 0 | 1 |
| 2 | 93 | 0 | 0.0431 | 0.4041000 | 0.07600 | 7.607679 | 48.07178 | 2.029158 | 3.872695 | 0.1430682 | -0.0192637 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.2721202 | 0.0434057 | 0.0968281 | 0.1803005 | 23014.133 | 275.9599 | 0.0344223 | 0.1656034 | -0.0016893 | 0.0008887 | -0.0001107 | -0.0084750 | -0.01500 | 0.0700002 | -0.0023000 | 330.6122 | 5.800946 | 0.0221357 | 0 | 1 |
| 3 | 80 | 0 | 0.0280 | 0.7510000 | 0.06700 | 6.502207 | 75.12620 | 1.872142 | 4.319170 | 0.1653266 | 0.1067777 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2373068 | 0.0540839 | 0.1357616 | 0.1633554 | 9332.060 | 299.4849 | 0.1122263 | 0.0294920 | -0.0058646 | -0.0016824 | 0.0014672 | 0.0044024 | 0.01650 | -0.0200000 | 0.0006000 | 141.7678 | 4.954191 | 0.0329189 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 81 | 0 | 0.0282 | 0.7549000 | 0.06125 | 5.723132 | 69.95551 | 1.744516 | 4.247859 | -0.1276256 | -0.0713100 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2320285 | 0.0505338 | 0.1345196 | 0.1708185 | 10250.007 | 302.6335 | 0.0938226 | 0.0104583 | -0.0052784 | -0.0035501 | -0.0012420 | 0.0074631 | -0.00575 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 160.4121 | 5.077746 | 0.1235552 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 82 | 1 | 0.0284 | 0.7588000 | 0.09917 | 5.115917 | 65.45364 | 1.632357 | 4.181342 | -0.1121595 | -0.0665174 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2290657 | 0.0477509 | 0.1321799 | 0.1726644 | 10476.102 | 294.6367 | 0.0218182 | -0.0267793 | -0.0029627 | -0.0027829 | -0.0023396 | 0.0018459 | 0.03792 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 185.0178 | 5.220452 | 0.1427059 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 83 | 0 | 0.0286 | 0.7627000 | 0.09117 | 4.931627 | 58.85483 | 1.595669 | 4.075074 | -0.0366877 | -0.1062684 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2270125 | 0.0458067 | 0.1289997 | 0.1751432 | 11228.498 | 288.2115 | 0.0693584 | -0.0220484 | -0.0020533 | -0.0019442 | -0.0031803 | 0.0024788 | -0.00800 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 209.2734 | 5.343641 | 0.1231894 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 84 | 0 | 0.0288 | 0.7666000 | 0.04933 | 5.137268 | 59.55983 | 1.636521 | 4.086981 | 0.0408524 | 0.0119076 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2262798 | 0.0449951 | 0.1248777 | 0.1773720 | 12285.703 | 284.4799 | 0.0899812 | -0.0130319 | -0.0007327 | -0.0008116 | -0.0041219 | 0.0022289 | -0.04184 | 0.0200002 | 0.0039001 | 227.1135 | 5.425450 | 0.0818086 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 85 | 0 | 0.0290 | 0.7705000 | 0.06508 | 6.030779 | 65.19818 | 1.796876 | 4.177432 | 0.1603549 | 0.0904503 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2255025 | 0.0452261 | 0.1206030 | 0.1787060 | 13219.922 | 282.1294 | 0.0732887 | -0.0082970 | -0.0007772 | 0.0002310 | -0.0042747 | 0.0013340 | 0.01575 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 249.2990 | 5.518653 | 0.0932031 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 86 | 1 | 0.0292 | 0.7744000 | 0.06925 | 6.600665 | 66.81227 | 1.887170 | 4.201887 | 0.0902942 | 0.0244551 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2224909 | 0.0456469 | 0.1169891 | 0.1804716 | 13993.291 | 288.3011 | 0.0568531 | 0.0216396 | -0.0030116 | 0.0004208 | -0.0036139 | 0.0017656 | 0.00417 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 259.8304 | 5.560029 | 0.0413761 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 87 | 0 | 0.0294 | 0.7783000 | 0.06275 | 6.034914 | 64.78411 | 1.797562 | 4.171061 | -0.0896088 | -0.0308261 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2234507 | 0.0448065 | 0.1137620 | 0.1800989 | 14526.112 | 288.7984 | 0.0373699 | 0.0017234 | 0.0009597 | -0.0008404 | -0.0032271 | -0.0003727 | -0.00650 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 273.2164 | 5.610264 | 0.0502353 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 88 | 0 | 0.0296 | 0.7822000 | 0.06258 | 5.982178 | 67.27242 | 1.788785 | 4.208750 | -0.0087769 | 0.0376897 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2240453 | 0.0432815 | 0.1117397 | 0.1790665 | 15063.988 | 291.7963 | 0.0363591 | 0.0103273 | 0.0005946 | -0.0015250 | -0.0020222 | -0.0010324 | -0.00017 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 307.1865 | 5.727455 | 0.1171908 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 89 | 0 | 0.0298 | 0.7861000 | 0.05225 | 5.886251 | 73.24241 | 1.772619 | 4.293775 | -0.0161655 | 0.0850244 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2274986 | 0.0411375 | 0.1098840 | 0.1758697 | 15639.458 | 294.1607 | 0.0374901 | 0.0080701 | 0.0034534 | -0.0021440 | -0.0018557 | -0.0031968 | -0.01033 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 341.2447 | 5.832600 | 0.1051445 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 90 | 1 | 0.0300 | 0.7900000 | 0.05325 | 6.495789 | 72.05352 | 1.871154 | 4.277409 | 0.0985348 | -0.0163655 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2292855 | 0.0404781 | 0.1070361 | 0.1722358 | 16254.542 | 298.6688 | 0.0385753 | 0.0152092 | 0.0017869 | -0.0006594 | -0.0028479 | -0.0036339 | 0.00100 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 354.5831 | 5.870943 | 0.0383430 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 91 | 0 | 0.0302 | 0.7939000 | 0.05700 | 6.714362 | 67.42098 | 1.904249 | 4.210956 | 0.0330948 | -0.0664530 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0.2314469 | 0.0397758 | 0.1033102 | 0.1692472 | 16758.816 | 338.4410 | 0.0305521 | 0.1250145 | 0.0021614 | -0.0007024 | -0.0037259 | -0.0029886 | 0.00375 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 375.7946 | 5.929043 | 0.0581002 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 92 | 0 | 0.0304 | 0.7978000 | 0.07400 | 6.708246 | 63.57751 | 1.903338 | 4.152260 | -0.0009112 | -0.0586963 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.2330376 | 0.0401879 | 0.1004697 | 0.1651879 | 17484.721 | 335.1775 | 0.0424029 | -0.0096897 | 0.0015907 | 0.0004121 | -0.0028405 | -0.0040593 | 0.01700 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 397.5440 | 5.985306 | 0.0562630 | 0 | 0 |
| 3 | 93 | 0 | 0.0306 | 0.8017000 | 0.06200 | 7.149898 | 67.16743 | 1.967098 | 4.207189 | 0.0637605 | 0.0549288 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.2317073 | 0.0401423 | 0.0988313 | 0.1618394 | 18119.162 | 341.9969 | 0.0356427 | 0.0201417 | -0.0013303 | -0.0000456 | -0.0016384 | -0.0033485 | -0.01200 | 0.0200000 | 0.0039000 | 416.1013 | 6.030929 | 0.0456228 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 80 | 1 | 0.1630 | 0.3870000 | 0.07608 | 3.349081 | 34.72878 | 1.208686 | 3.547569 | -0.0485332 | 0.1058278 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2370954 | 0.0568679 | 0.1216098 | 0.1465442 | 7384.177 | 200.3937 | 0.0668903 | 0.0714786 | -0.0020064 | -0.0008159 | 0.0009581 | 0.0003531 | 0.01433 | -0.2000008 | 0.0007000 | 131.2197 | 4.876873 | 0.1325030 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 81 | 0 | 0.1626 | 0.3884000 | 0.09100 | 3.104666 | 34.87658 | 1.132906 | 3.551816 | -0.0757798 | 0.0042467 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2333188 | 0.0532054 | 0.1229830 | 0.1504579 | 8304.127 | 192.8478 | 0.1174132 | -0.0383827 | -0.0037766 | -0.0036625 | 0.0013732 | 0.0039137 | 0.01492 | -0.0399990 | 0.0014000 | 127.3403 | 4.846863 | -0.0300097 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 82 | 1 | 0.1622 | 0.3898000 | 0.09775 | 3.242371 | 35.42241 | 1.176305 | 3.567344 | 0.0433986 | 0.0155289 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2306016 | 0.0501308 | 0.1233653 | 0.1495205 | 8646.841 | 194.9433 | 0.0404414 | 0.0108077 | -0.0027172 | -0.0030746 | 0.0003823 | -0.0009374 | 0.00675 | -0.0400009 | 0.0014000 | 145.1374 | 4.977681 | 0.1308174 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 83 | 0 | 0.1618 | 0.3912000 | 0.10125 | 3.005204 | 32.33435 | 1.100345 | 3.476130 | -0.0759596 | -0.0912144 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2281006 | 0.0477016 | 0.1231570 | 0.1504770 | 9099.015 | 192.8014 | 0.0509721 | -0.0110483 | -0.0025010 | -0.0024291 | -0.0002083 | 0.0009565 | 0.00350 | -0.0399990 | 0.0014000 | 170.9677 | 5.141475 | 0.1637940 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 84 | 1 | 0.1614 | 0.3926000 | 0.08942 | 3.253879 | 30.84224 | 1.179848 | 3.428885 | 0.0795026 | -0.0472448 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2262931 | 0.0469828 | 0.1206897 | 0.1512931 | 10052.484 | 195.4310 | 0.0996537 | 0.0135469 | -0.0018075 | -0.0007189 | -0.0024673 | 0.0008161 | -0.01183 | -0.0400009 | 0.0014000 | 183.2611 | 5.210912 | 0.0694370 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 85 | 0 | 0.1610 | 0.3940000 | 0.08633 | 3.523421 | 32.81994 | 1.259432 | 3.491036 | 0.0795844 | 0.0621510 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2247529 | 0.0472712 | 0.1173184 | 0.1521272 | 10674.928 | 197.2926 | 0.0600780 | 0.0094806 | -0.0015402 | 0.0002884 | -0.0033712 | 0.0008341 | -0.00309 | -0.0399990 | 0.0014000 | 193.1897 | 5.263672 | 0.0527606 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 86 | 1 | 0.1606 | 0.3954000 | 0.08758 | 4.015866 | 35.90437 | 1.390253 | 3.580859 | 0.1308208 | 0.0898230 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2212693 | 0.0484563 | 0.1136364 | 0.1535163 | 11209.113 | 201.9297 | 0.0488293 | 0.0232313 | -0.0034836 | 0.0011851 | -0.0036821 | 0.0013891 | 0.00125 | -0.0400009 | 0.0014000 | 203.0941 | 5.313669 | 0.0499969 | 0 | 0 |
| 4 | 87 | 0 | 0.1602 | 0.3968000 | 0.08100 | 4.201110 | 39.08497 | 1.435349 | 3.665738 | 0.0450958 | 0.0848787 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2203245 | 0.0482494 | 0.1097353 | 0.1545687 | 11613.968 | 204.6115 | 0.0354814 | 0.0131934 | -0.0009448 | -0.0002069 | -0.0039011 | 0.0010525 | -0.00658 | -0.0399990 | 0.0014000 | 221.2264 | 5.399187 | 0.0855174 | 0 | 0 |
library(ggplot2)
library(ggthemes)
ggplot(prison, aes(year, black, color=factor(state))) + theme_solarized() + geom_line()
library(ggplot2)
library(ggthemes)
mean_st <- prison %>% group_by( state ) %>% summarise( mean_unem = mean( unem ) )
ggplot(mean_st, aes(state, mean_unem)) + theme_solarized() + geom_point() 
library(ggplot2)
library(ggthemes)
mean_year <- prison %>% group_by( year ) %>% summarise( mean_unem = mean( unem ) )
ggplot(mean_year, aes(year, mean_unem)) + theme_solarized() + geom_point() 